


The portrayal of subculture in Katsuhiro Ôtomo’s manga AKIRA

by kimchisan



Category: Akira - All Media Types
Genre: Gen, Japanese Motorcycle Gangs, Metafiction, Other, bosozoku, subculture
Language: English
Status: Completed
Published: 2015-09-03
Updated: 2015-09-03
Packaged: 2018-04-18 13:06:51
Rating: Not Rated
Warnings: No Archive Warnings Apply
Chapters: 1
Words: 5,870
Publisher: archiveofourown.org
Story URL: https://archiveofourown.org/works/4707068
Author URL: https://archiveofourown.org/users/kimchisan/pseuds/kimchisan
Summary: <blockquote class="userstuff">
              <p>This piece of metaficiton takes a closer look at the subculture of Japanese motorcycle gangs (bôsôzoku) and youth gangs prominently featured in the manga AKIRA.</p>
            </blockquote>





	The portrayal of subculture in Katsuhiro Ôtomo’s manga AKIRA

**Author's Note:**

> Please note that I'm not an English native speaker. I used the German version of the manga for this. I will provide translations for passages where I wrote in German. 
> 
> I deleted the places where I cited stuff. If you want to know what I used, look at the "Works Cited" page. 
> 
> Thank you.

**The portrayal of subculture in Katsuhiro Ôtomo’s manga AKIRA**

 

**Table of Contents**

1 Introduction

2 Defining Subculture

3 The Historical Context

3.1 Youth Delinquency in 1980s Japan

3.2 The bôsôzoku

4 Analysis of the Manga

4.1 Setting

4.2 Depiction of motorcycle gangs

4.3 The deviant as hero: Kaneda

5 Conclusion

Works Cited 

 

* * *

 

#  **1 Introduction**

A highway at night time, a group of motorcycles flash through, following the road from an illuminated city into darkness. On their way they come across an old, abandoned toll booth, which sections off the road. The group builds a ramp to jump across and they follow the road until the leader Kaneda bids them to stop, as the road has vanished abruptly. They stare down into a crater of enormous proportions and, while talking, hint at a bomb explosion in the past. As they still want to race each other, they turn around and follow another branch of the highway. Tetsuo, the best friend of Kaneda, is in front when suddenly a child appears on the highway. Tetsuo can’t evade and crashes.

 

Thus begins the story of Ôtomo Katsuhiro’s[1] manga series - AKIRA. Obviously the summary of a manga consisting of six volumes or 2200 pages cannot encompass it in its entirety but the plot is approximately as follows: The manga is set in Japan years into the future, after Tokyo was destroyed by an explosion in the early 1990s. Unknown to many, a person named Akira was responsible. Kaneda’s gang becomes embroiled in the confrontations between different political factions fighting for dominance. Tetsuo develops telekinetic powers as an aftereffect of his motorcycle crash. He betrays the gang and wakes Akira who had been asleep for the last 30 years. Akira, who is actually a small boy with colossal telekinetic powers, destroys the city for a second time and leaves it in a post-apocalyptic state. Kaneda and companions fight against Tetsuo, who has lost the ability to control his new powers. Akira saves everyone by taking Tetsuo into another dimension and Kaneda becomes the de-facto leader of a new empire.

 

The manga and its movie adaption fascinate people to this day and this term paper sets out to examine the series on its subcultural content, specifically the elements referring to Japanese youth gangs and motorcycle gangs. However, before I can analyse the manga thoroughly I will give a definition of the term “subculture” and provide an overview of the Japanese delinquent youth culture in the 1970s and 1980s.

 

[1]Names of Japanese people will be written in Japanese order. First the surname and then the name afterwards. This does not include fictional characters.

Some parts were in German. I deleted those and put translations. The places will be marked like this: {...}.

* * *

 

 

#  **2 Defining Subculture**

To explain the term subculture precisely it is necessary to clarify certain concepts or settings beforehand. Howard S. Becker reports in his book “Außenseiter” {Outsider} that society is predominantly permeated with rules that influence the behaviour of the people within it. These rules have their roots in the values and traditions that society has created. But he differentiates between two types of rules, the ones that have the status of laws and the ones that are based on casual agreements. If broken, both can be prosecuted but they differ in the consequences. For example a thief will be punished by an overseeing organisation, the justice department of a state, because he broke the laws of that state.  Whereas a pregnant teenager in a rural area (of the same state) might be shunned by her peers. She did not break a law but a socially constructed moral code of conduct and is “punished” by her peers accordingly.

 

This demonstrates that the rules of conduct are set and enforced by social groups. They determine correct behaviour. A person that disregards these rules set by the group, intentionally or not, is seen as an outsider. To be seen as an outsider depends on how much a person deviates from the perceived societal norm. A person that has to pay fines because they parked in the wrong place is still viewed as a “normal” person and member of society. But for example a murderer or rapist is deviating so strongly from this status of “normal” that they are seen as not being part of society and are therefore labelled an outsider. Becker theorises that the societal enforced rules not only nurture deviant behaviour but he also argues that the application of these rules on other people, the act of labelling them outsiders, plays a part in creating more deviance as well. As a result outsiders are “outside” of the perceived norm because **others enforced their rules on them**. Becker also suggests that:

{Humans always impose their rules on other humans. They do so more or less against the other party's will and their consent [...]"}. As an example he relates the life of youths which is dictated by rules made by adults. This is deemed as a necessity because youths are not viewed, by society, as capable of creating these rules themselves.

 It has to be noted that Becker’s observations so far describe deviance mostly from a perspective where it is forbidden by law and either named criminal or delinquent depending on the age of the person. But he admits that this description for deviance does not always apply.

 

Becker argues that most people feel a need to act deviant every now and then. But “normal” people can withstand these incentives because they know of the consequences that would apply to them if they give in. There are two possible explanations for people to supersede this knowledge of the repercussions. Firstly, a person that has managed to avoid being bound to society by its rules is free to do as they please because in their opinion the consequences do not apply to them. The second possibility argues that the deviants are aware of the rules as well as their repercussions but have to justify their actions to themselves. The second explanation seems to be the more common one. This could also explain why, as Becker admits, lawful people turn to deviant actions because it is seen, at the time, as the necessary thing to do. This could entail actions like self-defence.

 

After establishing the general frame or setting in which subcultures emerge I’m going to inspect three variants of approaches to the term “subculture” which will be applied in the analysis portion of this paper. According to Becker “subculture” is created when deviants join groups. These deviant groups develop their own culture when their way of life disagrees with the one propagated by other members of society. As these “cultures” evolve within the culture of the majority of society they are called subcultures. The sense of self of the deviant is strongly afflicted by the act of joining a group. The similarities in deviant behaviour of the members in the group cause them to create an “us vs the others” mentality. They share knowledge with each other and base their future conduct on this shared knowledge. This enables them to establish an identity for themselves. For members of a group it is easier to justify their behaviour to themselves as they have access to this shared knowledge. It also has to be noted, that many of these in-group rationalisations reject most conventional moral codices. A new member has not only access to these rationalisations but also gains the necessary knowledge on, for example the avoidance of detection while being deviant.

 

Dieter Baacke, however, approaches the term subculture from the point of view of youths. He relates the development of subculture to the evolution of peer-groups, which differ from adult perspectives intentionally and let youths gain control of their role in society. The adolescents identify with subcultural practices because of their mutual dissociation of all conventional rules. He also provides a description of the term “underground”:

_{"Whereas the term 'subculture' describes mostly the spare time behaviour of youth peer-groups which are attached to families, schools and work places, the term 'underground', however describes the totalisation of subculture: setting itself free from societal institutions and insists on its autonomy."}_

Therefore the term “subculture”, according to him, links several diverse situations which begin with the joining of a peer-group, followed by youths dismissing traditions until all order is rejected by the “underground” movement. The borders between these states are not fixed and can blend into each other.

 

The last definition is the most generic one as it originates from the Oxford English Dictionary. As an entry in a dictionary it comprises various theories of subculture into the most common denominator. It defines subculture as “An identifiable subgroup within a society or group of people, esp. one characterised by beliefs or interests at variance with those of the larger group; the distinctive ideas, practices, or way of life of such a subgroup”. This definition is not only the most general but also the most neutral one of the ones presented. Whereas Becker and Baacke mostly discuss the behavioural aspect of subculture this rendition mentions that a subgroup within society is also “identifiable”. The term “identifiable” can have two implications in this context. It can either describe certain behaviour or imply something visible. Consequently subculture not only uses actions but also visual cues to distinguish itself from “normal” society.

 

I will analyse the manga AKIRA by Ôtomo Katsuhiro based on these approaches to subculture. However, before I can begin this investigation, it is necessary to offer an overview of the historical background the manga was influenced by and it is to this section of the paper I will now turn to.

* * *

 

#  **3 The Historical Context**

The subcultural elements found in the manga are mostly located in the Japanese youth culture formed during the 1970s and 1980s, chiefly regarding the behaviour of and reactions to delinquent youth. For an easier understanding of these aspects I provide an outline of Japanese delinquent youth culture in this chapter.

 

##  **3.1 Youth Delinquency in 1980s Japan**

Before starting to clarify how youth delinquency evolved in Japan during the 1980s it is necessary to know that: A new wealthy society had formed in Japan for the first time in the years between 1975 and 1985 and as a result of that the gap between the social classes widened during this period. It is also important to acknowledge that: Most Japanese tended to have a strong sense of belonging to the middle class since the defeat in World War II. It is in this context that Robert Stuart Yoder links the acts of deviant youths with social class and subculture. When lower class youths realise that they can’t match their advantaged middle class classmates in academic success they befriend students who are similar to them. The stronger the pressure on academic success becomes around them, the more they sympathise with delinquent acts against school. It is not unexpected then that: “Anti-school subcultures are dominant in low ranked high schools”. Even teachers at these schools tend to view and treat their students as misbehaving academic failures.

 

Considering this the existence of “Yankees”, delinquents that distinguish themselves from their peers by adopting a specific style and behaviour, is not surprising. A student identifies or is labelled as “Yankee” when, against all school regulations, visible cues of their lifestyle are displayed e.g. the school uniform is altered with embroidery, the student wears colourful shirts or changes their hair style or hair colour. A student that adopts a more radical version of this Yankee style is presumed to be more forceful in their behaviour. The Yankee gangs usually meet at hangouts where they chat and smoke but some also frequent shops that want to attract them. Inherent to these youth gangs is also the search for excitement.

As reported by Joachim Kersten in a society which emphasizes conformity, simple acts of deviant behaviour like changing someone’s hair colour and hair cut become a sign of rebellion and gains public attention. This visual distancing is important to youth gangs in so far as they gain a sense of identification with the group. Commonly the change into delinquents started for most Yankee when the entered Junior High School and formed groups. Their progress can be influenced by older delinquent groups at the school, chiefly regarding experimentation with different types of actions. Usually the delinquent students explore first harmless acts and move then on to riskier ones. 

My [Sato’s] informants generally described the sequence of deviant acts as follows: Smoking at home; Smoking in school; Coming late to school frequently; Wearing modified school uniform; Dying hair; Having perms; Truancy, Staying up late, Sleeping over at friend’s houses; Inhaling paint-thinner or glue; Joining bôsôzoku Runs; Using (meth)amphetamin [sic!].

 

Japanese gang activity can be divided into three groups: youth gangs, yakuza and _bôsôzoku_. These groups can blend into each other but Kersten argues that “[…] it is controversial whether this is of a consistent nature”. Youth gangs are characterised as valuing male heroism and overt masculine behaviour. The members of these gangs are between 14 and 20 years old. The yakuza on the other hand are referred to as a crime organisation similar to the Italian mafia. The third group, the _bôsôzoku_ plays an important role in the beginning of AKIRA and the following sub-chapter is dedicated to them.

##  **3.2 The _bôsôzoku_**

In the 1970s and 1980s a “fanatistic and carnival-like atmosphere” descended upon the nightly weekend traffic. Adolescent motorcycle gangs that wore uniforms reminiscent of kamikaze pilots would speed noisily for a few hours along the streets with group flags attached to their customized vehicles They were called _bôsôzoku_ , “The word […] literally means ‘violent driving tribe’ or ‘out of control tribe.’” and from around 1973 onwards their actions gained the attention of the community. Largely, the _bôsôzoku_ are Yankees but use motorcycles, however not all “Yankees” are also _bôsôzoku_.

 

 The history of the _bôsôzoku_ begins in the mid-1950s. The bikers consisted of either mechanics or wealthy people as they were the only ones able to own motorcycles during that period. They would meet at parks to compete with each other in various activities and gained their name, “ _’kaminari-zoku_ ’ (thunder tribe)”, from their noisy motorcycles. They were not viewed as a social problem at the time.

 

The mid-1960s saw some differences emerge for example the access to motorised vehicles was more widespread by then and most bikers were working youths. They met at places they designated as race tracks or circuits which lends them their name “ _circuit-zoku_ ”. Their activities attracted an audience who consisted mostly of people not affiliated with gangs. Despite what mass-media and the public thought the bikers were not organised in groups.

 

Beginning from the mid-1970s a new type of motorcycle gang emerged. In contrast to the loosely defined gatherings before, which consisted mainly of young adults driving around in summer, the so-called _bôsôzoku_ were minors and active during the whole year. They adopted an organised structure with a “leader” in reaction to the increase of membership in gangs during that time. Some groups also started to differentiate from others visually by using for example stickers. Others developed their own rules but for most of them, the “Run” – the driving on city streets and highways was their most important activity. The _bôsôzoku_ period was widely defined by an increase in fights not only between gangs but also with the police.

 

With this ends the historical section of this term paper and the next chapter will inspect the manga closely on the elements of subculture chiefly the ones concerning delinquent youth and _bôsôzoku_ subculture.

 

* * *

#  **4 Analysis of the Manga**

This chapter is divided into three sections which will examine different aspects of AKIRA. The first one will investigate the social setting presented in the manga series. This will be followed by a section about the depiction of motorcycle gangs and the chapter concludes with an analysis of the character of Kaneda.

 

##  **4.1 Setting**

The story of the manga is set in an alternate history. Considering the publishing date of the manga, 1982, the story of AKIRA begins 10 years in the future. The Tokyo Metropolitan Area has been destroyed by an explosion on the 6th December 1992. This led to the Third World War in which various capitals, cities as well as a country and an archipelago were completely annihilated. The actual story takes place 38 years later in Neo-Tokyo 2030 A.D. The city and society was rebuilt next to the ruins of the old one. But what becomes noticeable soon, is that in the Tokyo of 2030 the gap between the classes, that had only begun to be tangible in the real 1980s, gives the impression to have widened.

This becomes especially apparent when pictures of an ostensibly affluent futuristic society are paired with ones of poverty, revealing people who assumingly, lack prospects and therefore a future. The bad state of affairs has also affected the creation of a resistance or underground movement. Ôtomo Katsuhiro never clarifies what their goal truly is. It is obvious that they reject the governmental system and want to change it. However, the details of their plans, for the time after they overturn the government, remain unknown.

 

The state of society is also mirrored in the educational system. Interestingly, the school scenes in the manga imply that the school system is actually very close to the real one of the 1980s. The main characters attend a vocational training school, which would be classified as a low ranking school in real life. This is hinted at throughout the scenes having the school as a setting. The school, despite its futuristic outside appearance, is dirty, with garbage lying around and the walls are full of graffiti. The run down school is even viewed by the principal as the students’ last chance to become “valuable” members of society. The only other option for them would be a correctional facility. While they are reprimanded by their teacher for participating in _bôsôzoku_ activities and causing an accident, the students display a careless, relaxed and apathetic attitude. One of them even yawns. They do not want to listen to people embodying authority which leads the teachers to take disciplinary measures literally into their own hands. As punishment the students receive beatings by their gym teacher that are hard enough to give them bloody noses. Afterwards the students are expected to be grateful for the “meaningful lesson”.

Another scene pictures the students’ behaviour during a class situation. Most of them look as if they do not listen to the lesson at all. One of the students disregards the lesson entirely and reads a newspaper openly. The teacher is angered and prohibits this behaviour on grounds of disturbing class. Their loud arguing disrupts the class even further. Until the teacher antagonises the student and it is implied that the student wants to hit the teacher. In consideration of the time the manga was written in this scenario was probably not uncommon in some schools. Meanwhile Kaneda brought a capsule of unknown origin to school and inspects it on his table in plain view. Apparently the use of drugs on school grounds is common, as the reaction of the other students thinking it is a drug is this: {“Great, you brought something to school... Nice...".}

The society, Ôtomo depicts in the manga, can be viewed as follows: The authorities represented by the military, police and teachers, which are enforcing the rules, on the one side and the deviants or outsiders who are represented by the youth gangs and the resistance movement, on the other. What becomes noticeable is that there seems to be no in-between these two sides. From a social class perspective: the middle class is left out of the story. People who comply with society’s norms are for the most part not depicted in the manga. Ôtomo draws these people only once in the story, as a contrast right before Akira destroys Tokyo for the second time.

 

The society portrayed after this second disaster is one, literally, in ruins. The structures that held society together are gone e.g. currency has lost its significance and barter of valuables like watches has been adopted. Even the military and police have lost their meaning in this new world. Noteworthy is in this new context, that where the culture of the majority has vanished, the subcultural has ostensibly stepped into its place. The government and its laws are gone and different factions have emerged to replace the order with their own rules, going as far as declaring a part of town their own country.

It appears that in the fight for survival, people who were predisposed to deviant actions before the disaster are now in an advantaged position over people that had conformed to the rules previously. This shows itself principally in the case of the faction called {“Great Tokyo Empire”} (henceforth referred to as GTE) that has settled in the west of town. It was founded by Tetsuo, a former member of Kaneda’s motorcycle gang and attracts a variety of delinquent youth. Similar to gangs the GTE has a ritual of admittance if one wants to join a specific rank. In the case of becoming a bodyguard it is taking drugs.

There is also a similarity to gangs in the methods the GTE uses when it encounters enemies or rivals. For example when one of the leaders finds out that the other faction in town could gain an advantage by sheltering people they need, he orders the members of the GTE to attack said faction same as a gang would attack the hangout of a rival gang if they felt threatened. This scene is also reminiscent of an immediate military assault, even the way it is drawn supports this. The commanding officer or leader in this case, scoping out the hangout and leading the men or gang members into a fight. 

 

However there is a type of gang that is most prominently featured in the manga and has not been related to, in depth, yet. The _bôsôzoku_.

 

##  **4.2 Depiction of motorcycle gangs**

AKIRA features two groups of _bôsôzoku_ : “Kaneda’s gang” and the “Clowns”. This section of the chapter will compare these two with each other and will point out similarities found with real life Japanese motorcycle gangs.

 

If counted by motorcycle, Kaneda’s gang has roughly 8-10 members of those only four are known by name. Kaneda the leader of the gang, his childhood friend Tetsuo, Yamagata who takes his responsibilities in the gang seriously and Kai another member who has close ties to Kaneda. In comparison little can be found out about the membership situation in the Clowns in the manga itself. Examining one of the additional illustrations in volume 5, where the gang is seen on a photograph they ostensibly have 12 members. Only the nickname of the leader, Joker, is known the rest are unknown. Ages, in both gangs probably range between 15 and 19.

 

Similar to _bôsôzoku_ in real life both gangs have their own distinctive style. While participating in the “Run”, speeding on an unused highway, Kaneda and other members wear protective overalls and typical motorcycle helmets. At other times they forsake the helmets and drive just with protective goggles. It also occurs that some overalls and helmets have designs on them. However, at first glance, Kaneda’s gang is not what would be expected of typical _bôsôzoku_. Even at school, the gang does not stand out through the way they dress. The school they attend probably does not have a school uniform which could be altered. Some members wear overalls or bomber jackets to school, others different types of shirts or pullovers. A certain dress code cannot be discerned for the gang. Everybody wears what they like. Only Yamagata seems to favour a more “conventional” delinquent style and wears a shirt depicting Mt. Fuji and a rising sun symbol.

On the whole, even regarding their hair style the gang is not really deviating from the “norm”. None have bleached or permed hair. Only Kai has spiked hair which could be naturally occurring or be explained by the use of hairspray. It has to be noted that, on account of Ôtomo not really depicting what “normal” people wear, no stereotypical deviancy can be proven. The clothing and hair style of the Clowns in comparison resemble the “usual” _bôsôzoku_ style much more. For one they have the kamikaze pilot uniform incorporated into their style and wear various types of helmets. Pilot type or baseball batting type helmets are possibly their favourites, which they decorate with stickers mimicking an upside down face of a clown. They hide their identity by wearing protective goggles and respirator masks, one even wears a gas mask. Also to establish the clown theme they wear waistcoats and bowties over their clothes. Joker, as the leader, even has clown tattoos, uses makeup and wears suspenders. 

 

Concerning the motorcycles each gang uses, they are as dissimilar as each gang’s clothing styles. The motorcycles used by Kaneda’s gang, mostly sport bikes with disk brakes and big windshields, are pictured as much more sleek and futuristic compared to the ones used by the Clowns. Again Yamagata differs from the other members of the gang in choosing to ride a retro-style chopper motorcycle with visible swing arms similar to the ones favoured by Joker’s gang. The Clowns also decorate their motorcycles with funny stickers similar to the ones on their helmets. Their love for motorcycles unites these two gangs, as both Kaneda and Joker are seen to customise, repair and care for them. Especially Joker is an adept mechanic as he was able to repair a military grade hover platform.

 

Although Kaneda’s gang does not appear to be like _bôsôzoku_ visually, their behaviour clearly indicates them as such. As seen in their school scenes they do not listen to people with authority. It is implied that this was not the first time they had to face consequences for their behaviour. The principal even states that they can be tried in a court of law if they step out of line one more time, implying that they will be sent to a correctional facility if they do. They are also not above petty theft. For example the gang gives Tetsuo a new motorcycle as a present, when prompted by Tetsuo where it came from they answer: {Somebody forgot it on the side of the road"}.

They are willing to break the laws for their own entertainment e.g they gain access to a restricted area just to experience the freedom of the “Run”. There are many scenes depicting them while speeding through the streets of Neo-Tokyo, not respecting other participants in traffic as well as taking part in high speed police chases which is not unlike the behaviour of real life _bôsôzoku_. Same as their counterparts in reality who used methamphetamines, Kaneda’s gang takes psychostimulant drugs to enhance the experience of the “Run”. In general, drug abuse might be standard behaviour for them as Kaneda is depicted “eating” a capsule like candy. The Clowns resemble Kaneda’s gang in behaviour but they seem to like fighting more, ambushing an unsuspecting Tetsuo on his motorcycle. Similarly they like to use drugs but appear to deal with them as well. They even have some kind of laboratory in their hangout.

 

Regarding hangouts both gangs differ in taste there as well. Kaneda and his friends prefer to stay at a slightly run-down bar where they play video games, take drugs openly and drink alcohol. The owner of the bar welcomes them as patrons and even gives Kaneda a place to hide from authorities. In contrast the Clowns favour dilapidated buildings that give them space. Their hangout before the destruction of Neo-Tokyo was an abandoned bowling alley afterwards they took shelter in the ruin of a love hotel.

 

This concludes the in-depth examination of the _bôsôzoku_ presented in the manga series. Ôtomo was able to re-create this subculture for the manga in great detail. As a result of this, even though a futuristic scenario is pictured in the manga, the structures and visible cues for these motorcycle gangs of the 1980s still come across clearly. Now, however, I will focus on Kaneda as the hero of the story.

 

##  **4.3 The deviant as hero: Kaneda**

Before discussing if Kaneda can be considered a hero I should define what I mean by hero in this context. The hero is most often the main focus of the story and his actions, which are expressed as morally good by society, are responsible for him being put in this elevated position above the rest of society. A hero is therefore, by default, someone that follows society’s rules and does “good”.

 

Kaneda occupies many different roles in the story: _bôsôzoku_ , delinquent, teenager, freedom fighter and friend. Not once does he follow the rules others wanted to enforce on him. Usually, the protagonist is the one to identify with, in a story. The focal point. The question that arises is as follows: who is supposed to identify with him? Kaneda stays true to his deviant course throughout the story. For this reason I suggest that his story can be understood as a subcultural or delinquent coming-of-age story.

 

Little is known about Kaneda before the events of AKIRA unfold. Kaneda is characterised as the competent and charismatic leader of his gang who cares for his friends especially his childhood friend Tetsuo, but on a personal level he still is a boy. This can be best illustrated in the scene where he wants to harm a child and is stopped by an adult threatening him with a gun. Kaneda’s change in facial expressions clearly indicates that he did not expect this course of events and when a police officer is shot right in front of him he reacts shocked which is contrary to the behaviour as tough gang leader he exhibited before. He also displays a tremendous ability to adapt to situations for example when he takes the child hostage to get out of a desperate position. In comparison when Ôtomo draws him looking over the illuminated ruins of Neo-Tokyo in the last volume and when he deals later with the representatives of the UN, ordering them to leave, Kaneda’s character growth becomes apparent. He has evolved but never lost himself during the process.

 

In evidence of Kaneda’s character development over the course of the six volumes, the character does not really fit the category of a hero. It can be argued that he chooses to whom he does eventually do “good” but still that would not specifically signify him as a hero. He deviates from the conventional concept of the hero as his actions are morally questionable at times and he will not follow any kind of rules. In the end he creates his own rules.

 

The opposite of the hero would be the villain, acting reprehensibly to interfere with the hero’s progress in the story. However, Kaneda does not fit into this category either. He is depicted as still caring about Tetsuo even though his childhood friend has killed Yamagata and many others. His, admittedly, “rough” concern during their fight disqualifies him from the position of villain in the story. Kaneda walks, metaphorically, on the thin line between both sides, hero and villain. On account of this it can be concluded that he is an anti-hero, “One who is the opposite or reverse of a hero; esp. a chief character in a […] story who is totally unlike a conventional hero”.

* * *

#  **5 Conclusion**

When I set out to write this term paper I wanted to investigate the manga AKIRA on its depiction of subculture particularly on the culture concerning the Japanese youth gangs known as _bôsôzoku_. The results of this investigation were that, not only does Ôtomo feature these aspects of youth culture in his manga accurately while creating a futuristic scenario which had its roots in the current events of the 1980s, he also eternalised them. He shed light into their world that, although not conforming to society’s standards, does have its own rules of “correct” behaviour.

 

Nowadays the manga but even more so the movie stay in the memory of people as portraying cool, violent gangs on motorcycles. But in my opinion, reflecting the results of my investigation, the story is much more than that. Ôtomo gave these youth gangs depth. He did not reduce them to the stereotypes society holds against them. Notably when faced with the destruction of society, effectively freeing them from oppression, the artist shows their true strength.

 

I would like to end this paper with a quote from volume 5 and a description of the last pages of the manga series. The Colonel who always represented authority over the course of the story says about Kaneda and his friends: {"Your youth is your strongest weapon..."}. After Kaneda declared the destroyed city as the “Great Akira Empire”, ordering the representatives of UN to leave his country and stating that Akira will live on within them, he and his friends drive on their motorcycles towards the ruins of the city.

On their way they meet the Colonel for the last time. The Colonel declines their invitation to join their cause as he is injured but thanks them for everything that has happened and tells them to take care of themselves. The youths then drive off leaving the Colonel, who looks after them with a hopeful expression. While they drive onwards through the remnants of Neo-Tokyo, Kaneda sees the spirits of Yamagata and Tetsuo joining the “Run” on their motorcycles. The last page features the gang driving towards an unknown but hopeful future with the city’s destroyed skyscrapers as the background.

 

* * *

 

 

#  **Works Cited**

 

Baacke, Dieter (1972): _Jugend und Subkultur_. München: Juventa Verlag.

 

Becker, Howard S. (2014): _Außenseiter_. [Orig. _Outsiders. Studies in the sociology of deviance_ ]. Translation: Monika Plessner. 3. Edition. Wiesbaden: Springer VS.

 

Kawasaki, Ken’ichi (1994): „Youth Culture in Japan“. In: _Social Justice_ 21: 2, S. 185-203.

 

Kersten, Joachim (1993): „Street Youths, Bosozoku, and Yakuza: Subculture Formation and Societal Reactions in Japan“. In: Crime & Deliquency 39, S. 277-295.

 

Ôtomo, Katsuhiro (2003): _AKIRA 1_ [ Orig. _AKIRA vol. 1_ ]. Translation: Junko Iwamoto-Seebeck und Jürgen Seebeck. 3. Edition. Hamburg: Carlsen Verlag.

 

\--- (2002a): _AKIRA 3_ [Orig. _AKIRA vol. 3_ ]. Translation: Junko Iwamoto-Seebeck und Jürgen Seebeck. 2. Edition. Hamburg: Carlsen Verlag.

 

\--- (2002b): _AKIRA 4_ [Orig. _AKIRA vol. 4_ ]. Translation: Junko Iwamoto-Seebeck und Jürgen Seebeck. 2. Edition. Hamburg: Carlsen Verlag.

 

\--- (2001a): _AKIRA 5_ [Orig. _AKIRA vol. 5_ ]. Translation: Junko Iwamoto-Seebeck und Jürgen Seebeck. 1. Edition. Hamburg: Carlsen Verlag.

 

\--- (2001b): _AKIRA 6_ [Orig. _AKIRA vol. 6_ ]. Translation: Junko Iwamoto-Seebeck und Jürgen Seebeck. 1. Edition. Hamburg: Carlsen Verlag.

 

Oxford English Dictionary (2012): „subculture“; http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/192545?rskey=WpBhWV&result=1&isAdvanced=false#eid [Stand: 01.03.2015].

 

\--- (1972): „anti-hero“; http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/8637?redirectedFrom=anti-hero#eid [Stand: 05.03.2015].

 

Sato, Ikuya (1986): „Bosozoku and Yankee: Anomy and Parody in the Affluent Society”; http://search.proquest.com/docview/303443061?accountid=98641 [04.03.2015]

 

Yoder, Robert Stuart (2004): _Youth Deviance in Japan_. Melbourne: Transpacific Press.

**Author's Note:**

> I apologize the conclusion isn't that great. My lecturer told me this as well. 
> 
> But I still hope it was interesting for you to read.


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